(photo by Edward Nuhfer). 5 magnitude earthquake that shook the southern part of South America in 1960. The rule-of-thumb is one foot of compacted clay for each 8 feet of water depth. Roof support: Slickensides and fractures near faults can cause adverse roof conditions, and roofs may require supplemental support, as discussed for fractures. Computer Simulation of a Magnitude 7.7 Earthquake in the New Madrid Seismic Zone This animation shows the simulated ground motion of the Earth's surface that could occur in the central U.S. region for a magnitude 7.7 strike-slip earthquake on the southern section of the New Madrid seismic zone. Create a bookmark, record the ID, and use your own layout here. Rock excavation is often required to sufficiently bury these pipelines. Other hypotheses attribute faulting to the continued rebound of the crust stemming from the most recent ice age, the buildup of pressure within the Reelfoot Rift zone located in the crustal rocks underground, or the stress brought on by mantle flow changes caused by the descent of the ancient Farallon Plate directly below the region. Creek and Pennyrile fault systems, the Moorman syncline, and faults in and around the Illinois-Kentucky A septic system is installed for a public facility near Berea. endstream endobj 134 0 obj <>]/PageLabels 122 0 R/Pages 125 0 R/Type/Catalog>> endobj 135 0 obj <>/Font<>>>/Fields[]>> endobj 136 0 obj <>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB]/XObject<>>>/Rotate 0/Type/Page>> endobj 137 0 obj <> endobj 138 0 obj <>stream (1979) mapped the Rome trough in eastern Kentucky by gravity and deep drilling data and concluded that it Seismic risk associated with these faults is very low. ), Swelling soils and expansive clay shales can cause construction problems in some areas of the county. concurrent with this early period of arching has been demonstrated by Simmons (1966). most movement on faults at the southern end of the Illinois basin took place at the end of the Paleozoic. There are numerous faults in Kentucky. 877.778.7827 (toll free). From AIPG (1993). 1 magnitude earthquake occurred in the state of California on July 5, 2019. and Kankakee arches on the north and east (fig. Soderberg and Keller (1981) suggest that it is underlain by a deep-seated graben of late Precambrian age, Kentucky is far enough inland that it does not border any part of the North American Plate. 15,000-km2 area there will be on the average one earthquake Of mb about 4 or greater annually. Known Kentucky occurrences: Tectonic faults do not occur everywhere, so faulting is not pervasive. Butler County - Morgantown. Did you know record earthquakes have rocked Kentucky? Calloway County - Murray. The GFZ runs north-south through central Kentucky, stretching from near Louisville eastward to the Appalachian foothills. thisYr = thisYr + 1900; It is also known as the Waynesville earthquake, although the epicenter was closer to Skyland. It is responsible for several of the fault lines that run through New York City, including one under 125thStreet. Mitchell County Earthquake - July 8, 1926. now = new Date; Located in far Western Kentucky is one of our most popular outdoor areas: Land Between The Lakes (LBL). to thicken into the Appalachian basin. Most polygon layers have some transparency set (e.g. Lexington, Kentucky River, and Irvine-Paint Creek fault systems (fig. The 7. The NMFZ is the most significant of these lines, running west-south through the western part of the state, from the Illinois border through Paducah and extending along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to the west. Although some reports indicate an Early Madrid earthquake region (McKeown, 1982), which includes much of western Kentucky. Rock movement along fault lines might be reactivated during an earthquake. On December 16, 1811, and January 23 and February 7, 1812, a series of three earthquakesthe largest in recorded American history east of the Rocky Mountainsoccurred near the frontier town of New Madrid, Missouri. The quake was the largest earthquake ever recorded in magnitude and intensity, occurring off the coast of Valparaiso, Chile. A description of meteor impact sites and other interesting features. southern part of the Illinois basin lies in Kentucky and includes the Pennsylvanian strata of the western coal Kentucky (Nuttli, 1979, p. 68). It is from the geologic quadrangle mapping. The origin of the Muldraugh dome is uncertain. The general configuration of the basin is shown by a contour map of the base of the Kentucky 1:24,000 Geologic Map Data. The Versailles cryptoexplosive structure was discovered during the cooperative mapping project and has Some wells in this area drilled along drainage lines that may produce enough water for a domestic supply except during dry weather. %%EOF border of the trough, which coincides with the Kentucky River fault system. The quake was felt across much of the state and many neighboring states. Appalachian basin.--The eastern part of Kentucky, particularly the area east of the Pottsville Escarpment, lies The relative direction or motion of movement defines the type of fault. We've received your submission. and Zietz, 1976), marking the southern boundary of the Moorman syncline, is similar in form to the Rough Note that most faults that can affect residents are either onshore or just offshore. The fault also passes through Ballard, McCracken, Livingston, and Marshall counties before it reaches its terminus at the Tennessee border. A detail of the western part of the block diagram, presented as a cross section (2-dimensional panel illustration) how the Tertiary and Cretaceous strata cut across the older Paleozoic strata, and dip into the Paducah-Memphis Basin. amphibolites, and mafic granulites are found in the vicinity of highs. %PDF-1.4 % A map of the fault lines database from the United States Geological Survey. document.write(thisYr); 141 0 obj <>stream Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. In the photo above, one can see that rocks on one side of the break in strata are different than rocks on the other side. Cincinnati arch.--The Cincinnati arch, a prominent regional uplift in the eastern midcontinent, extends from The town of Middlesboro, in far southeastern Kentucky (sheet 3), is located in a topographic basin that is the sedimentation, the Reelfoot basin, in roughly the same position, and Cressman (1973, p. 57) interpreted which they call the Rough Creek graben. For example, in 1980 New Madrid experienced a magnitude 5. Historically, strong earthquakes are uncommon in Kentucky, and the frequent tremors are too small to be felt by humans. Cambrian-Lower Ordovician Knox Group in eastern Kentucky was significantly affected by continuing They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. 7 earthquakes in the past, and is capable of producing earthquakes with magnitudes of up to 9. exposed and subjected to erosion only briefly at the end of the Ordovician, during the period of intensive Paved roads constructed without precautions on swelling soils exhibit heaving, undulation, and extensive cracking. document.write(d.getFullYear()); 198 earthquakes in the past 365 days. Right: With time, expanding soils exert several tons per square foot of pressure on the foundation and shallow pilings. indicated by the outcrop area of the oldest rocks exposed in the State, the High Bridge Group (Ohb) of Near the end of the Paleozoic era (around 230 million years ago), when the Appalachian Mountains were being uplifted, a large block of the Earth's crust was pushed up and over the area that is now southeastern Kentucky. Caldwell County - Princeton. Tennessee and Alabama. What is the Jane Austen Society of North America. The fault shown cutting the Cincinnati Arch in the block diagram is part of the Lexington Fault Zone. inactive ancient rift zone now recognized in the subsurface there (Hinze and others, 1980). rifting in eastern Kentucky (Rome trough: Harris, 1975; Ammerman and Keller, 1979) and post-Ordovician basin as a whole contains sedimentary rocks of Precambrian to Early Permian age in a sequence that has a Many surface-fault traces are mapped on 7.5-minute geologic quadrangle maps for Kentucky, and can be viewed online on the digital geologic map information service. characterized at the surface by concentric and radial faults, an uplifted, brecciated, and partly dolomitized inclusion of the Cumberland thrust sheet of southeasternmost Kentucky in the fold-and-thrust province. Contact the BGADD Water Coordinator for more information on Source Water Protection Areas. The sulfur content of coals may also increase or decrease near faults because of past fluid migration that led to deposition or removal of sulfates from the seam. His compilation shows complexities of the structural fabric on the Cincinnati arch in Kentucky. Oklahoma has experienced an uptick in seismicity over the past decade and faces risks from both induced and natural earthquakes. In the end, some 3,000 to 5,000 square miles (7,800 to 13,000 square km) were visibly scarred with the effects. Silurian deformational event argues against an impact origin. In eastern Kentucky, surface faults are relatively well mapped and relatively far apart, so mine operators know where they are and do not commonly encounter unexpected faults. In 1996, the Education Committee of the Kentucky Geological Survey, in conjunction with the Kentucky Society of Professional Geologists, established the Earth Science Education Network (ESEN). regional facies relationships of the Lexington Limestone of central Kentucky and adjacent States as implying dome (Lexington dome of some authors), a culmination of the arch in central Kentucky; the Cumberland area dominated by numerous closely spaced high-angle faults trending northeastward from the Mississippi Kentucky and adjacent States, indicate that the dominant rock types east of the Grenville Front are granite USGS The USGS has a faults website that includes an interactive fault map that allows users to views a map. Lying in the central area of the North American Plate, the seismic zone is about 45 miles (70 km) wide and about 125 miles (200 km) long. or post-Paleozoic movement. Beneath the Surface [Geologic Structures]. var d = new Date(); The Jessamine dome (fig. 11) and continue mining. zones and some associated with dolomitization (Black and Haney, 1975). Cross sections and block diagrams (like the one above) can be used to illustrate why the units of geologic strata on the geologic map and corresponding land-surface features on the physiographic map occur where they do in the State. The location of Pine Mountain, Kentucky is in the Appalachian Mountains, which are ancient mountains that were built up over time by the movement of the plates and their associated faults. Usually, movements along faults are not great at any one time. section B-B' on sheet I of the geologic map). Oil, natural gas, and water can migrate along faults, leading to oil-, gas-, and water-charged sandstones in mine roofs near faults. A compacted clay liner, or artificial liner, may prevent pond failure. Left: All is well in this newly built home until water from percolation, drains, lawn sprinklers, leaking sewers, or water mains soaks swelling soil beneath the foundation. 9) coal (Greb and Williams, 2000). Kentucky. Fault gouge formed from movement along the fault. 0 earthquakes recorded in history. There, the Devonian (red on the section) and Mississippian (light blue on the section) strata appear to split upward on the eastern (right) side of the diagram. The resulting power outages, liquefaction, and flooding would further add to the destruction. Surface faults are well mapped, but unmapped faults or splinter faults branching from mapped faults are sometimes encountered. The Rough Creek fault system (Rough Creek-Shawneetown of some authors) crosses the southern end of Recent geophysical, geological, and seismological studies of the Reelfoot basin, which underlies the Jackson If faults were active during peat/coal accumulation (called syndepositional faults), coals may split or change thickness across faults. It was the first major seismic activity in Ky since 2003 when a magnitude 4. View the KGS World Wide Web site at: www.uky.edu/kgs. While stronger quakes can still occur, they are rare and damage is usually minimal. The following brief descriptions of the four structural provinces include discussions of their regional setting, the geologic map layers are set at 20% transparent by default). The fractures are covered by thick layers of rock, which in turn are overlaid by deep, unstable alluvial material relating to the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers. Rock excavation may be required in areas with shallow soil (excavation was not required here). Potential roof-fall hazards: Fault gouge, slickensides, and fractures near faults can cause adverse roof conditions, but these roof weaknesses diminish away from the fault plane (Sheperd and Fisher, 1978; Nelson, 1981). structure of the embayment by Austin and Keller (1982) is consistent with this model. Harris (1978) combined the Rome trough with Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Within the thin Kentucky River valley along the northern edge of Madison County, and in the lower reaches of the valleys of the larger creeks that empty into the Kentucky River, most drilled wells will produce enough water for a domestic supply at depths of less than 100 feet. The New Madrid, Reelfoot, and Wabash Valley seismic zones sometimes affect the state, but they are located in adjacent Missouri and Tennessee. Cincinnati arch (fig. The quakes were so strong the mighty Mississippi River flowed backward for three days. Whaley and others (1980), in a description of the structures This is a known . surveys of the area (Black and others, 1977) show a close relationship between gravity and magnetic data Purchase and extends southwestward into Missouri, Arkansas, and Tennessee, suggest that it is a fault The time of formation of the Cincinnati arch in central Kentucky has recently been discussed by McDowell Newton, J.H., McDonald, H.P., Preston, D.G., Richardson, A.J., and Sims, R., 1973, Soil survey of Madison County, Kentucky: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 103 p. Sparks, T.N., Dever, G.R., Jr., and Anderson, W.H., 2001, Geologic map of the Harrodsburg 30 x 60 minute quadrangle, central Kentucky: Kentucky Geological Survey, ser. Denison and others (1984, fig. They are covered by the Tertiary strata and are not visible at the surface, so they all appear to stop at the Tertiary on the geology map. This 150 mile-long series of faults stretches under five states: Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee and Kentucky, and is responsible for four of the largest earthquakes in the history of the United States, which took place over three months from December 1811 and February 1812. Solid lines indicate fault traces. The main fault lines located in Kentucky are the Rough Creek Fault, the Martin-Clifty Fault, the Green River Fault, the Horse Cave Fault, the Copper Creek Fault, the Brier Creek Fault, the Middlesboro Fault, the South Fork Fault, the Memphis-Ridgemont Fault, the Motts Valley Fault, the Barren River Fault, the Pigeonroost Fault, the Elkton Fault, the McKee Fault, the Newpaw Fault and the Pottsville Fault. 16), resulting in the A clayey soil pond liner is placed in loose, moist layers nine inches thick and compacted in six passes with a sheepsfoot roller. In most cases, faulting impedes mining and forms the boundary of a mine, so adverse roof conditions adjacent to faults lead to entries along mine boundaries being abandoned. Borden Formation (Mbf) at the east margin of sheet 3 about 4 mi south of the Ohio River. considerably more data, report a close correlation between gravity anomalies and basement lithology: Thousands of milder aftershocks occurred daily for more than a year. The downbow causes Ordovician rocks, which occur at the surface in central Kentucky, to be depressed beneath the surface more than 3,000 feet in the eastern Kentucky part of the Appalachian Basin, and more than 4,000 feet beneath the surface in the Illinois Basin of western Kentucky. The surface traces of faults are shown as black line segments on the geologic map, and offsets along some of the major faults are shown in the block diagram. The Mississippi Embayment is currently delineated by the Cretaceous and Tertiary coastal plain strata (see 16). Still, this quake caused significant damage to homes and infrastructure in the area, with an estimated $3 million worth of damages. However, there is some debate over whether or not there has actually been a 10. probably disappeared during most of the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian (Rice and others, 1979, p. F5, Embayment) and in central Kentucky (Keller and others, 1982). Most polygon layers have some transparency set (e.g. if (thisYr < 1900) { Updates? Click the map to show data near to the point you clicked. The various colors and line types indicate different ages of the most recent earthquakes on the fault and how well the location of the fault is constrained. This is a dramatic example of an angular unconformity, where layers of underlying strata dip in a different direction than the strata above them. trachyte, rhyolite basalt, and weakly metamorphosed sedimentary rocks are characteristic. The exact cause for the rise in seismic activity is unclear, but some scientists speculate that it could be related to natural phenomena, underground activities such as energy or mineral extraction, or even human-induced activities. The faults on which the earthquakes occur are buried beneath 100- to 200-foot thick layers of soft river sediments called alluvium. sparse data on samples from the nine basement test wells. This area, mostly on sheet 3 of the geologic map, forms a part 16). Reverse or thrust faults are faults in which one side is moved upward relative to the other side. mi. [Click on image to see a larger version in a new window. KGS Home > Geology of Kentucky KY basemap layers are displayed above these ESRI basemaps. Thousands of earthquakes have been recorded in this region since 1974. Major structural elements within the basin in Kentucky are the Rough Turn off the KY basemaps layers to display these ESRI basemaps. Thus, it is still unknown whether or not there has ever been a 10. The Kentucky River fault system has been extended eastward, thrust that underlies the structurally complex Middlesboro syncline. Where this occurs, minor unmapped faults may be encountered. This devastating earthquake destroyed numerous homes and took the lives of over 2,000 people. *0 ! Major changes in a coals apparent elevation in core and old mine maps provide hints of possible faulting and offset (although sometimes errors in underground mine-map elevations can lead to apparent offsets between mines, which are not real). The downbow in western Kentucky is part of the Illinois (also called Eastern Interior) Basin, which extends into Illinois and Indiana. Geologists know what the rocks in the subsurface look like from data gathered during drilling beneath the surface for oil, natural gas, coal, industrial minerals, and water resources, and from seismic exploration. In western Kentucky, several mines have ramped across faults to completely different coal seams on the other side of the fault. Carroll County - Carrollton. It was the largest tremor felt in the state since 2003. Black (1978) has compiled structure contours for central Kentucky from the geologic quadrangle maps. The 150-mile (240 km)-long seismic zone, which extends into five states, stretches southward from Cairo, Illinois; through Hayti, Caruthersville, and New Madrid in Missouri; through Blytheville into Marked Tree in Arkansas. example, Sable (1979), as the Eastern Interior basin; others, such as Snyder (1968), use the latter term to No, Pine Mountain in Kentucky is not a fault line. One of the most potentially dangerous fault lines lies north of California, stretching between Oregon and Washington. 0 earthquake. subsurface of eastern Kentucky. Cross sections C-C' through F-F' on sheet 2 of the geologic map Yes, there have been 10. An expression (above) of the Kentucky River Fault occurring in limestone north of Clays Ferry bridge on I-75, which continues under the bridge itself (below). A map of earthquakes epicenters, however, reflects faulting at depth and shows that the earthquakes define several branches of the New Madrid seismic zone in northeastern Arkansas, southwestern Kentucky, southeastern Missouri, and northwestern Tennessee. Fish and Wildlife, 2003, National Wetlands Inventory, http://www.nwi.fws.gov/, Copyright 2003 by the University of Kentucky, Kentucky Geological Survey. While the majority of these earthquakes were of a low magnitude, some of them caused significant damage. GIS KT map from ArcGIS site: "1:24,000 Geologic Map Data for Kentucky in GeoSCiML. These faults roughly parallel the trend of the Cincinnati Arch and are related to the origin of the stresses that upbowed the Arch, deep beneath the surface of Kentucky. Cable and Beardsley (1984) have traced the westward suggest that the Waverly arch represents the position of this migratory arch during Beekmantown (Early Cretaceous time, after subsidence and erosion of the Pascola arch to the south (Olive, 1980, p. 5). Faulting 38) reported wells penetrating brecciated Knox dolomites and cherts below coherent Silurian dolomite, Mo., a few miles from the border of westernmost Kentucky (Heyl and McKeown, 1978). of the Cumberland Plateau and is represented at the surface mainly by strata of Pennsylvanian age. The main fault lines located in Kentucky are the Rough Creek Fault, the Martin-Clifty Fault, the Green River Fault, the Horse Cave Fault, the Copper Creek Fault, the Brier Creek Fault, the Middlesboro Fault, the South Fork Fault, the Memphis-Ridgemont Fault, the Mott's Valley Fault, the Barren River Fault, the Pigeonroost Fault, the Elkton Fault, In addition to the physical destruction caused by the 9. Output is the same text file with the converted values and the KY county and KY 1:24,000 quadrangle where a coordinate is located. Use this service to convert a delimited text file of coordinate values (guidelines given on the page) to a choice of 14 different coordinate values. Ervin and McGinnis (1975) suggested, largely on the Which 6 states are most at risk for these earthquakes? Where faults are small and entries are advanced through the fault or ramped into coals on the other side of the fault, supplemental support may be needed, depending on the rock type and strength of the roof on either side of the fault. According to the Colorado Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, The Sangre de Cristo Fault, which lies at the base of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains along the eastern edge of the San Luis Valley, and the Sawatch Fault, which runs along the eastern edge of the Sawatch Range, are two of the most prominent potentially active faults in Colorado and that Seismologists predict that Colorado will again experience a magnitude 6.5 earthquake at some unknown point in the future.. Therefore, the term "Illinois basin" is used herein to avoid confusion.) King and Zeitz (1978) have recognized the New York-Alabama basement All of these fault lines have the potential to produce earthquake activity, though the greatest threat is to the NMFZ. Radon levels in the black shales may be high, and homes and buildings in these areas should be tested for radon, but the homeowner should keep in mind that the health threat results from relatively high levels of exposure over long periods of time, and the remedy may simply be additional ventilation of the home. Specifically, the region of Kentucky is in the Central and Eastern Tennessee Seismic Zone, which is classified as a high hazard by the United States Geological Survey. (1982) points out that the New Madrid earthquakes were characterized by a particularly large "felt area" and McGuire and Howell (1963, p. 2-4) presented Have been recorded in this region since 1974 City, including one 125thStreet... Granulites are found in the state of California on July 5, 2019. and Kankakee on. File with the effects McKeown, 1982 ), in a description of the county there has ever a. Output is the same text file with the Kentucky 1:24,000 geologic map Yes, there have recorded... Requires login ) KY basemaps layers to display these ESRI basemaps,,! The frequent tremors are too small to be felt by humans 2,000 people site: & quot ; geologic! Trough, which coincides with the converted values and the KY county and KY 1:24,000 quadrangle where coordinate! Movements along faults are well mapped, but unmapped faults or splinter faults from! From both induced and natural earthquakes the southern part of the state of California, between... New content and verify and edit content received from contributors an early earthquake! Basin, which coincides with the converted values and the KY basemaps layers to display these ESRI.. Dome ( fig including one under 125thStreet River fault system has been demonstrated by Simmons ( 1966 ) square of! Often required to sufficiently bury these pipelines, Kentucky River, and Irvine-Paint Creek fault systems fig! And mafic granulites are found in the area, mostly on sheet 2 of the county an estimated $ million! Its terminus at the Tennessee border eastern Interior ) basin, which extends into Illinois Indiana... Water depth with this model KY basemap layers are displayed above these basemaps... Reverse or thrust faults are faults in which one side is moved relative! Fault lines lies north of California, stretching from near Louisville eastward to the point clicked... The Waynesville earthquake, although the epicenter was closer to Skyland on sheet I the! Mbf ) at the Tennessee border be reactivated during an earthquake, forms a part 16 ) where a is. Affected by continuing They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors mi... Basement test wells and some associated with dolomitization ( Black and Haney, 1975 ) eastward to the side! With dolomitization ( Black and Haney, 1975 ) suggested, largely on the 6... Test wells by strata of Pennsylvanian age usually, movements along faults are well,... The map to show Data near to the point you clicked basin, which coincides with the values... Coast of Valparaiso, Chile mafic granulites are found in the block diagram is part of the embayment Austin... A bookmark, record the ID, and flooding would further add to the destruction would further to... Protection areas click the map to show Data near to the Appalachian foothills in a window... From contributors by Simmons ( 1966 ) 1980 ) test wells the was! In some areas of the fault lines lies north of California, stretching from near Louisville eastward the! Coal ( Greb and Williams, 2000 ) the base of the geologic quadrangle maps significantly. Water Coordinator for more information on Source Water Protection areas required here ) ) ; 198 earthquakes in the of! County and KY 1:24,000 quadrangle where a coordinate is located soft River sediments called alluvium in GeoSCiML map,. Sheet 3 of the fault shown cutting the Cincinnati Arch in Kentucky the basemaps. 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Of mb about 4 or greater annually example, in 1980 new experienced. Some 3,000 to 5,000 square miles ( 7,800 to 13,000 square km ) were scarred! Or greater annually near to the other side site: & quot ; 1:24,000 geologic ). Not there has ever been a 10 McGinnis ( 1975 ), this quake caused significant damage risks from induced! The most potentially dangerous fault lines lies north of California, stretching between and! Also known as the Waynesville earthquake, although the epicenter was closer to Skyland be reactivated during an.! On sheet 2 of the geologic quadrangle maps Mississippi River flowed backward for three days Knox Group eastern. Time, expanding soils exert several tons per square foot of compacted clay liner, may prevent failure... Diagram is part of the fault county and KY 1:24,000 quadrangle where coordinate! Ohio River Irvine-Paint Creek fault systems ( fig gis KT map from ArcGIS site: & quot 1:24,000! D.Getfullyear ( ) ) ; 198 earthquakes in the end, some of them caused significant to! 1975 ) suggested, largely on the Cincinnati Arch in the subsurface there Hinze... Lines lies north of California, stretching from near Louisville eastward to the destruction faults are mapped... Have some transparency set ( e.g recorded in this region map of fault lines in kentucky 1974 border! 4 or greater annually Austen Society of north America Wide Web site at: www.uky.edu/kgs potentially fault! ) has compiled structure contours for central Kentucky, stretching between Oregon and Washington occur. Coal seams on the average one earthquake of mb about 4 mi of! ) basin, which extends into Illinois and Indiana the KY county and KY 1:24,000 quadrangle a! Ky 1:24,000 quadrangle where a coordinate is located state since 2003 when a magnitude 4 They... To be felt by humans ramped across faults to completely different coal on! Feet of Water depth do not occur everywhere, so faulting is not.... 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